KlahowyaSecondary School

NEW WORLDS: THE AMERICAS AND OCEANIA

1. Colliding worlds
2. The Spanish Caribbean
3. Indigenous peoples were the Taino
4. Lived in small villages under authority of chiefs
5. Showed little resistance to European visitors
6. Columbus built the fort of Santo Domingo, capital of the Spanish Caribbean
7. Taino conscripted to mine gold
8. Encomiendas: land grants to Spanish settlers with total control over local people
9. Brutal abuses plus smallpox brought decline of Taino populations
10. The conquest of Mexico and Peru
11. Hernan Cortés
12. Aztec and Inca societies wealthier, more complex than Caribbean societies
13. With 450 men, Cortés conquered the Aztec empire, 1519-1521
14. Tribal resentment against the Mexica helped Cortés
15. Epidemic disease (smallpox) also aided Spanish efforts
16. Francisco Pizarro
17. Led a small band of men and toppled the Inca empire, 1532-1533
18. Internal problems and smallpox aided Pizarro's efforts
19. By 1540 Spanish forces controlled all the former Inca empire
20. Iberian empires in the Americas
21. Spanish colonial administration formalized by 1570
22. Administrative centers in Mexico and Peru governed by viceroys
23. Viceroys reviewed by audiencias, courts appointed by the king
24. Viceroys had sweeping powers within jurisdictions
25. Portuguese Brazil: given to Portugal by Treaty of Tordesillas
26. Portuguese king granted Brazil to nobles, with a governor to oversee
27. Sugar plantations by mid-sixteenth century
28. Colonial American society
29. European-style society in cities, indigenous culture persisted in rural areas
30. More exploitation of New World than settlement
31. Still, many Iberian migrants settled in the Americas, 1500-1800
32. Settler colonies in North America
33. Foundation of colonies on east coast, exploration of west coast
34. France and England came seeking fur, fish, trade routes in the early seventeenth century
35. Settlements suffered isolation, food shortages
36. Colonial government different from Iberian colonies
37. North American colonies controlled by private investors with little royal backing
38. Royal authority and royal governors, but also institutions of self-government
39. Relations with indigenous peoples
40. Settlers' farms interrupted the migrations of indigenous peoples
41. Settlers seized lands, then justified with treaties
42. Natives retaliated with raids on farms and villages
43. Attacks on European communities brought reprisals from settlers
44. Between 1500 and 1800, native population of North America dropped 90 percent
45. Colonial society in the Americas
46. The formation of multicultural societies
47. In Spanish and Portuguese settlements, mestizo societies emerged
48. Peoples of varied ancestry lived together under European rule
49. Mestizo: the children of Spanish and Portuguese men and native women
50. Society of Brazil more thoroughly mixed: mestizos, mulattoes, zambos
51. Typically the social (and racial) hierarchy in Iberian colonies was as follows:
52. Whites (peninsulares and criollos) owned the land and held the power
53. Mixed races (mestizos and zambos) performed much of the manual labor
54. Africans and natives were at the bottom
55. North American societies
56. Greater gender balance among settlers allowed marriage within their own groups
57. Relationships of French traders and native women generated some métis
58. English disdainful of interracial marriages
59. Cultural borrowing: plants, crops, deerskin clothes
60. Mining and agriculture in the Spanish empire
61. Silver more plentiful than gold, the basis of Spanish New World wealth
62. Conquistadores melted Aztec and Inca gold artifacts into ingots
63. Two major sites of silver mining: Zacatecas (Mexico) and Potosi (Peru)
64. The global significance of silver
65. One-fifth of all silver mined went to royal Spanish treasury (the quinto)
66. Paid for Spanish military and bureaucracy
67. Passed on to European and then to Asian markets for luxury trade goods
68. Large private estates, or haciendas, were the basis of Spanish American production
69. Produced foodstuffs for local production
70. Abusive encomienda system replaced by the repartimiento system
71. Repartimiento system replaced by free laborers by the mid-seventeenth century
72. Resistance to Spanish rule by indigenous people
73. Various forms of resistance: rebellion, indolence, retreat
74. Difficult for natives to register complaints: Poma de Ayala's attempt
75. Sugar and slavery in Portuguese Brazil
76. The Portuguese empire in Brazil dependent on sugar production
77. Colonial Brazilian life revolved around the sugar mill, or engenho
78. Engenho combined agricultural and industrial enterprises
79. Sugar planters became the landed nobility
80. Growth of slavery in Brazil
81. Native peoples of Brazil were not cultivators; they resisted farm labor
82. Smallpox and measles reduced indigenous population
83. Imported African slaves for cane and sugar production after 1530
84. High death rate and low birth rate fed constant demand for more slaves
85. Roughly, every ton of sugar cost one human life
86. Fur traders and settlers in North America
87. The fur trade was very profitable
88. Native peoples trapped for and traded with Europeans
89. Impact of the fur trade
90. Environmental impact
91. Conflicts among natives competing for resources
92. European settler-cultivators posed more serious threat to native societies
93. Cultivation of cash crops--tobacco, rice, indigo, and later, cotton
94. Indentured labor flocked to North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
95. African slaves replaced indentured servants in the late seventeenth century
96. Slave labor not yet prominent in North America (lack of labor-intensive crops)
97. New England merchants participated in slave trade, distillation of rum
98. Christianity and native religions in the Americas
99. Spanish missionaries introduced Catholicism
100. Mission schools and churches established
101. Some missionaries recorded the languages and traditions of native peoples
102. Native religions survived but the Catholic Church attracted many converts
103. In 1531, the Virgin of Guadalupe became a national symbol
104. French and English missions less successful
105. North American populations not settled or captive
106. English colonists had little interest in converting indigenous peoples
107. French missionaries worked actively, but met only modest success

  III.        Europeans in the Pacific

1. Australia and the larger world
2. Dutch mariners explored west Australia in the seventeenth century
3. No spices, no farmland
4. Australia held little interest until the eighteenth century
5. British captain James Cook explored east Australia in 1770
6. In 1788, England established first settlement in Australia as a penal colony
7. Free settlers outnumbered convicted criminal migrants after 1830s
8. The Pacific Islands and the larger world
9. Spanish voyages in the Pacific after Magellan
10. Regular voyages from Acapulco to Manila on the trade winds
11. Spanish mariners visited Pacific Islands; some interest in Guam and the Marianas
12. Indigenous Chamorro population resisted but decimated by smallpox
13. Impact on Pacific islanders of regular visitors and trade
14. Occasional misunderstandings and skirmishes
15. Whalers were regular visitors after the eighteenth century
16. Missionaries, merchants, and planters followed